UCSC Responds to Terrorist Attacks

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September 25, 2001

Social scientists weigh in on terrorist attacks

By Jennifer McNulty

Nearly 100 people, including Chancellor M.R.C. Greenwood, packed the College Eight Student Commons Room on Monday (September 24) to hear three top UCSC social scientists discuss the recent terrorist attacks and the U.S. government's response so far.

Sociology professor Dane Archer organized the 90-minute event, "After the Bombing: What Can the Social Sciences Contribute in the Age of New Perils?" Archer tapped colleague Paul Lubeck, an expert on Islam around the world, and research professor Tom Pettigrew of social psychology, whose field is race relations, to share their expertise.

"As social scientists, we study the raw materials of war: race, conflict, violence, political ideology, attitudes, and aggression," Archer said by way of introduction. "Social science has something to offer as we try to find ways to add to the peace and subtract from the violence of the new century."

Expressing sorrow about the attacks, Archer and the other participants sought insights that could help guide U.S. policy in the future.

Lubeck called the attacks "the greatest intelligence failure in American history" and predicted that they will herald the end of global financial deregulation, among other things.

"The aim of the attacks was to provoke a religious war, and the choice of the World Trade Center and the Pentagon was intended to shake our confidence and terrorize us," said Lubeck. "They want to suck Americans into another quagmire."

Archer, too, cautioned against "buying into the spiral of retaliation" that could follow a military assault, noting that such action would likely erode the worldwide sympathy and support the United States has received since September 11.

As the nation prepares for a "war against terrorism," Archer called on the United States to reexamine what constitutes a war crime, citing changing perceptions over the past 100 years.

"When Picasso painted 'Guernica' in 1937, he was horrified by the aerial bombing taking place, but by the end of World War II, we saw attacks on London, the carpet bombing of Dresden, and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima," said Archer.

"We are losing the distinction between combatants and noncombatants," he said. The "horrifying" September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon clinched the fact that "civilians are suddenly an acceptable target," said Archer.

"Americans have got to deal with this," he said. "We need to have a national rethinking of war and what is ethically unacceptable. Our ideas about war and peace in the 21st century have to be reworked because the old standards seem to be losing their moral force."

Archer also called on airlines to make air travel more safe, and made his own suggestion. Recalling the apparent heroism of three passengers on the hijacked flight that crashed in Pennsylvania, Archer described the "incredible intellectual" feat of the three men as they overcame what social scientists call the "unresponsive bystander" phenomenon.

"There was a paradigm shift as these men, thanks to what they learned over their cell phones about the devastation in New York, decided not to be 'good, quiet hostages,' and got involved," said Archer. "I believe that because of their actions, we still have the Capitol building."

Social scientists know that once one person intervenes, others move to help, as well, "almost as if they'd been freed from their bonds," said Archer.

Over the years, he noted, many students who have learned about the "unresponsive bystander" phenomenon in his classes have told Archer that they were able to overcome their own hesitation in subsequent emergency situations precisely because they knew about the problem of the passive bystander.

"The airlines need to find a way to teach their passengers how to do this, because knowing this phenomena frees you from its power," said Archer, who has written to the Airline Pilots Association to suggest ways to increase bystander intervention.

"It was a terrible outcome [in Pennsylvania], but it was not as horrific as it might have been," said Archer.

Pettigrew, an internationally recognized expert on race relations and prejudice, applied social psychology's "aggression theory" to the events of September 11. Labeling the terrorists "crazy" or "fanatics," as the media have done, reveals our ignorance about their motives, said Pettigrew.

A key to understanding aggression, particularly the spiral of aggression that we've witnessed in Northern Ireland and between Palestinians and Israelis, is understanding that aggressors rarely think they are the first to act aggressively, he said.

"When you see aggression, it is thought by the aggressor to be reactive--a payback for something that has already been done, or a preemptive strike because they feel you are just about to attack them," said Pettigrew.

In that light, the terrorist attacks should be seen as a response to U.S. actions and policies, including the $2 billion a year the United States provides for Israeli arms, said Pettigrew.

"Around the world, the U.S. is seen as a huge, aggressive superpower that has no rival," he said, expressing amazement that so many Americans have apparently been shocked to learn this in recent days.

Pettigrew praised Bush for speaking out against attacks on Arab Americans and Muslims, however. "There are a lot of aggressive, hostile people, and cases like this give them an opportunity to take out their aggressions under the guise of being patriotic," he said, recalling grim chapters of American history in which German Americans were burned out of their homes during World War I and Japanese Americans were imprisoned during World War II.

Stirring up anti-Arab sentiments serves to "depersonalize" Arabs, which "makes it fair game to kill them," cautioned Pettigrew.

Although the United States seems focused on seeking revenge, Pettigrew warned against contributing to the "spiral" of violence. "Revenge is almost surely going to increase the probability of terrorist attacks happening again," he said.

Lubeck, a professor of sociology and a specialist in Islam, discussed the social, economic, and global forces that have contributed to despair in the Muslim world and have fostered the extreme anti-American sentiments that appear to have motivated the Sept. 11 attacks.

"Islam has emerged as the most important opposition movement to American global hegemony," said Lubeck.

Lubeck, who recently received a $240,000 grant from the Carnegie Foundation to study Islamic social movements (story), described the impact of the 1973-74 oil boom, and the subsequent oil bust of the 1980s, on Muslim oil-producing countries. Eleven of the 14 OPEC nations are Muslim, he noted.

"They went from a period of enormous wealth, urbanization, education, and rising expectations to an economic contraction, or crisis, in which they were forced to take out loans from the International Monetary Fund," said Lubeck.

As governments withdrew from their responsibilities to provide basic social services, Islamic civil societies stepped up to fill the void. Such groups now provide food, health care, and education to thousands, said Lubeck, adding that 14 percent of all health care in Egypt is provided by Muslim volunteer organizations. More than 1 million Iraqi children have died as a result of U.S. sanctions against the country, he noted.

The 1989 collapse of the Soviet Union contributed to a further fragmentation of authority, leaving Muslims searching for a nonwestern alternative. Although there is considerable variation among Muslims, including a Muslim feminist effort to reinterpret the Koran and the emergence of a republican form of government in Iran, globalization has facilitated the emergence of a transnational Muslim identity, said Lubeck.

Technological innovations, such as cellular telephones, electronic finance, and satellite communications and broadcasting, have fueled new Islamic movements, he said, and the most threatening development is the conviction held by "radical Muslim insurrectionists" that "unbelievers," including observant Muslims, may be killed.

The phrase 'Westoxifcation' sums up the threat to the integrity of Islamic beliefs that many Muslims feel the United States represents.

"Muslims feel they are under assault by American hegemonism," said Lubeck. "And the West is fully implicated in the emergence and structural power of these insurrectionist movements. We need to understand their grievances to create political reforms to deal with these movements, rather than military actions."


Back to: Terrorist Crisis directory	September 25, 2001 Social scientists weigh in on terrorist attacks By Jennifer McNulty Nearly 100 people, including Chancellor M.R.C. Greenwood, packed the College Eight Student Commons Room on Monday (September 24) to hear three top UCSC social scientists discuss the recent terrorist attacks and the U.S. government's response so far. Sociology professor Dane Archer organized the 90-minute event, "After the Bombing: What Can the Social Sciences Contribute in the Age of New Perils?" Archer tapped colleague Paul Lubeck, an expert on Islam around the world, and research professor Tom Pettigrew of social psychology, whose field is race relations, to share their expertise. "As social scientists, we study the raw materials of war: race, conflict, violence, political ideology, attitudes, and aggression," Archer said by way of introduction. "Social science has something to offer as we try to find ways to add to the peace and subtract from the violence of the new century." Expressing sorrow about the attacks, Archer and the other participants sought insights that could help guide U.S. policy in the future. Lubeck called the attacks "the greatest intelligence failure in American history" and predicted that they will herald the end of global financial deregulation, among other things. "The aim of the attacks was to provoke a religious war, and the choice of the World Trade Center and the Pentagon was intended to shake our confidence and terrorize us," said Lubeck. "They want to suck Americans into another quagmire." Archer, too, cautioned against "buying into the spiral of retaliation" that could follow a military assault, noting that such action would likely erode the worldwide sympathy and support the United States has received since September 11. As the nation prepares for a "war against terrorism," Archer called on the United States to reexamine what constitutes a war crime, citing changing perceptions over the past 100 years. "When Picasso painted 'Guernica' in 1937, he was horrified by the aerial bombing taking place, but by the end of World War II, we saw attacks on London, the carpet bombing of Dresden, and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima," said Archer. "We are losing the distinction between combatants and noncombatants," he said. The "horrifying" September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon clinched the fact that "civilians are suddenly an acceptable target," said Archer. "Americans have got to deal with this," he said. "We need to have a national rethinking of war and what is ethically unacceptable. Our ideas about war and peace in the 21st century have to be reworked because the old standards seem to be losing their moral force." Archer also called on airlines to make air travel more safe, and made his own suggestion. Recalling the apparent heroism of three passengers on the hijacked flight that crashed in Pennsylvania, Archer described the "incredible intellectual" feat of the three men as they overcame what social scientists call the "unresponsive bystander" phenomenon. "There was a paradigm shift as these men, thanks to what they learned over their cell phones about the devastation in New York, decided not to be 'good, quiet hostages,' and got involved," said Archer. "I believe that because of their actions, we still have the Capitol building." Social scientists know that once one person intervenes, others move to help, as well, "almost as if they'd been freed from their bonds," said Archer. Over the years, he noted, many students who have learned about the "unresponsive bystander" phenomenon in his classes have told Archer that they were able to overcome their own hesitation in subsequent emergency situations precisely because they knew about the problem of the passive bystander. "The airlines need to find a way to teach their passengers how to do this, because knowing this phenomena frees you from its power," said Archer, who has written to the Airline Pilots Association to suggest ways to increase bystander intervention. "It was a terrible outcome [in Pennsylvania], but it was not as horrific as it might have been," said Archer. Pettigrew, an internationally recognized expert on race relations and prejudice, applied social psychology's "aggression theory" to the events of September 11. Labeling the terrorists "crazy" or "fanatics," as the media have done, reveals our ignorance about their motives, said Pettigrew. A key to understanding aggression, particularly the spiral of aggression that we've witnessed in Northern Ireland and between Palestinians and Israelis, is understanding that aggressors rarely think they are the first to act aggressively, he said. "When you see aggression, it is thought by the aggressor to be reactive--a payback for something that has already been done, or a preemptive strike because they feel you are just about to attack them," said Pettigrew. In that light, the terrorist attacks should be seen as a response to U.S. actions and policies, including the $2 billion a year the United States provides for Israeli arms, said Pettigrew. "Around the world, the U.S. is seen as a huge, aggressive superpower that has no rival," he said, expressing amazement that so many Americans have apparently been shocked to learn this in recent days. Pettigrew praised Bush for speaking out against attacks on Arab Americans and Muslims, however. "There are a lot of aggressive, hostile people, and cases like this give them an opportunity to take out their aggressions under the guise of being patriotic," he said, recalling grim chapters of American history in which German Americans were burned out of their homes during World War I and Japanese Americans were imprisoned during World War II. Stirring up anti-Arab sentiments serves to "depersonalize" Arabs, which "makes it fair game to kill them," cautioned Pettigrew. Although the United States seems focused on seeking revenge, Pettigrew warned against contributing to the "spiral" of violence. "Revenge is almost surely going to increase the probability of terrorist attacks happening again," he said. Lubeck, a professor of sociology and a specialist in Islam, discussed the social, economic, and global forces that have contributed to despair in the Muslim world and have fostered the extreme anti-American sentiments that appear to have motivated the Sept. 11 attacks. "Islam has emerged as the most important opposition movement to American global hegemony," said Lubeck. Lubeck, who recently received a $240,000 grant from the Carnegie Foundation to study Islamic social movements (story), described the impact of the 1973-74 oil boom, and the subsequent oil bust of the 1980s, on Muslim oil-producing countries. Eleven of the 14 OPEC nations are Muslim, he noted. "They went from a period of enormous wealth, urbanization, education, and rising expectations to an economic contraction, or crisis, in which they were forced to take out loans from the International Monetary Fund," said Lubeck. As governments withdrew from their responsibilities to provide basic social services, Islamic civil societies stepped up to fill the void. Such groups now provide food, health care, and education to thousands, said Lubeck, adding that 14 percent of all health care in Egypt is provided by Muslim volunteer organizations. More than 1 million Iraqi children have died as a result of U.S. sanctions against the country, he noted. The 1989 collapse of the Soviet Union contributed to a further fragmentation of authority, leaving Muslims searching for a nonwestern alternative. Although there is considerable variation among Muslims, including a Muslim feminist effort to reinterpret the Koran and the emergence of a republican form of government in Iran, globalization has facilitated the emergence of a transnational Muslim identity, said Lubeck. Technological innovations, such as cellular telephones, electronic finance, and satellite communications and broadcasting, have fueled new Islamic movements, he said, and the most threatening development is the conviction held by "radical Muslim insurrectionists" that "unbelievers," including observant Muslims, may be killed. The phrase 'Westoxifcation' sums up the threat to the integrity of Islamic beliefs that many Muslims feel the United States represents. "Muslims feel they are under assault by American hegemonism," said Lubeck. "And the West is fully implicated in the emergence and structural power of these insurrectionist movements. We need to understand their grievances to create political reforms to deal with these movements, rather than military actions."